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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Conditional sentence</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the noncustodial punishment for a crime in Canada, see <a href="Conditional_sentence_(Canada)" title="Conditional sentence (Canada)">Conditional sentence (Canada)</a>.</div>

<p>A <b>conditional sentence</b> is a sentence in a <a href="Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural language</a> that expresses that one thing is <a href="Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a> on another, e.g., "If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled." They are so called because the impact of the sentence’s <a href="Main_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Main clause">main clause</a> is <i>conditional</i> on a <a href="Subordinate_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Subordinate clause">subordinate clause</a>. A full conditional thus contains two clauses: the subordinate clause, called the <i>antecedent</i> (or <i>protasis</i> or <i>if-clause</i>), which expresses the condition, and the main clause, called the <i>consequent</i> (or <i>apodosis</i> or <i>then-clause</i>) expressing the result.

</p><p>To form conditional sentences, languages use a variety of grammatical forms and constructions. The forms of <a href="Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> used in the antecedent and consequent are often subject to particular rules as regards their <a href="Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, <a href="Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, and <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>. Many languages have a specialized type of verb form called the <a href="Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional mood</a> – broadly equivalent in meaning to the English "would (do something)" – for use in some types of conditional sentences.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_conditional_sentence">Types of conditional sentence</h2></div>

<p>There are various ways of classifying conditional sentences. Many of these categories are visible cross-linguistically.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implicative_and_predictive">Implicative and predictive</h3></div>

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<p>A conditional sentence expressing an <i>implication</i> (also called a <i>factual</i> conditional sentence) essentially states that if one fact holds, then so does another. (If the sentence is not a <a href="Declarative_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative sentence">declarative sentence</a>, then the consequence may be expressed as an order or a <a href="Question" title="Question">question</a> rather than a statement.) The facts are usually stated in whatever <a href="Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">grammatical tense</a> is appropriate to them; there are not normally special tense or <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a> patterns for this type of conditional sentence. Such sentences may be used to express a certainty, a universal statement, a law of science, etc. (in these cases <i>if</i> may often be replaced by <i>when</i>):

</p>

<dl><dd><dl><dd>If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius (° C), it boils.</dd>

<dd>If the sea is stormy, the waves are high.</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<p>They can also be used for logical deductions about particular circumstances (which can be in various mixtures of past, present, and future):

</p>

<dl><dd><dl><dd>If it's raining here now, then it was raining on the West Coast this morning.</dd>

<dd>If it's raining now, then your laundry is getting wet.</dd>

<dd>If it's raining now, there will be mushrooms to be picked next week.</dd>

<dd>If he locked the door, then Kitty is trapped inside.</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<p>A <i>predictive</i> conditional sentence concerns a situation dependent on a hypothetical (but entirely possible) future event. The consequence is normally also a statement about the future, although it may also be a consequent statement about present or past time (or a question or order).

</p>

<dl><dd><dl><dd>If I become President, I'll lower taxes.</dd>

<dd>If it rains this afternoon, everybody will stay home.</dd>

<dd>If it rains this afternoon, then yesterday's weather forecast was wrong.</dd>

<dd>If it rains this afternoon, your garden party is doomed.</dd>

<dd>What will you do if he invites you?</dd>

<dd>If you see them, shoot!</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indicative_and_counterfactual">Indicative and counterfactual</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="English_conditional_sentences" title="English conditional sentences">English conditional sentences</a>, <a href="Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual conditional</a>, and <a href="Indicative_conditional" title="Indicative conditional">Indicative conditional</a></div>

<p>One of the most discussed distinctions among conditionals is that between <i>indicative</i> and <i>counterfactual</i> conditionals, exemplified by the following <a href="English_language" title="English language">English</a> examples:

</p>

<ul><li><b>Indicative conditional</b>: If Sally <i>owns</i> a donkey, then she <i>beats</i> it.</li>

<li><b>Simple past counterfactual</b>: If Sally <i>owned</i> a donkey, she <i>would beat</i> it.</li></ul>

<p>These conditionals differ in both form and meaning. The indicative conditional uses the present tense forms "owns" and "beats" and therefore conveys that the speaker is agnostic about whether Sally in fact owns a donkey. The counterfactual example uses the <a href="Fake_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Fake tense">fake tense</a> form "owned" in the "if" clause and the past-inflected <a href="Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">modal</a> "would" in the "then" clause.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, it conveys that Sally does not in fact own a donkey.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar contrasts are common crosslinguistically, though the specific <a href="Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> marking varies from language to language.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_Society_of_America_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_Society_of_America-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguists</a> and <a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophers of language</a> sometimes avoid the term <i>counterfactuals</i> because not all examples express counterfactual meanings. For instance, the "Anderson Case" has the characteristic grammatical form of a counterfactual conditional, but is in fact used as part of an argument for the truth of its antecedent.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<dl><dd><dl><dd><b>Anderson Case</b>: If Jones had taken arsenic, he would have shown just exactly those symptoms which he does in fact show.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<p>The term <i>subjunctive conditional</i> has been used as a replacement, though it is also acknowledged as a misnomer. Many languages do not have a <a href="Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">subjunctive</a> (e.g., <a href="Danish_grammar" title="Danish grammar">Danish</a> and <a href="Dutch_grammar" title="Dutch grammar">Dutch</a>), and many that do have it don’t use it for this sort of conditional (e.g., <a href="French_grammar" title="French grammar">French</a>, <a href="Swahili_grammar" title="Swahili grammar">Swahili</a>, all <a href="Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan languages</a> that have a subjunctive). Moreover, languages that do use the subjunctive for such conditionals only do so if they have a specific past subjunctive form. <sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>X-Marked</i> has been used as a replacement, with indicative conditionals renamed as <i>O-Marked</i> conditionals.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Speech_act_conditionals">Speech act conditionals</h3></div>

<p><i>Biscuit conditionals</i> (also known as <i>relevance</i> or <i>speech act</i> conditionals) are conditionals where the truth of the consequent does not depend on the truth of the antecedent.

</p>

<ul><li>There are biscuits on the table if you want some.</li>

<li>If you need anything, my name is Joshua.</li>

<li>If I may be honest, you're not looking good<sup id="cite_ref-Language_Log_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Language_Log-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p>In <i>metalinguistic conditionals</i>, the antecedent qualifies the usage of some term. For instance, in the following example, the speaker has unconditionally asserted that they saw the relevant person, whether or not that person should really be called their ex-husband.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>I saw my ex-husband, if that's the right word for him.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-declarative_conditionals">Non-declarative conditionals</h3></div>

<p>In <i>conditional questions</i>, the antecedent qualifies a question asked in the consequent.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>If Mary comes to the party, will Katherine come too?</li>

<li>If Angel forgets her guitar, what will we do?</li></ul>

<p>In <i>conditional imperatives</i>, the antecedent qualifies a command given in the consequent.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li>If you are at an intersection, turn right!</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crosslinguistic_variation">Crosslinguistic variation</h2></div>

<p>Languages have different rules concerning the <a href="Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical</a> structure of conditional sentences. These may concern the <a href="Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> structure of the antecedent and consequent clauses, as well as the forms of verbs used in them (particularly their <a href="Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> and <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>). Rules for English and certain other languages are described below; more information can be found in the articles on the grammars of individual languages. (Some languages are also described in the article on the <a href="Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional mood</a>.)

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin">Latin</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Latin_conditional_clauses" title="Latin conditional clauses">Latin conditional clauses</a></div>

<p>Conditional sentences in <a href="Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> are traditionally classified into three categories, based on grammatical structure.

</p>

<ul><li>simple conditions (factual or logical implications)

<ul><li>present tense [if <i>present indicative</i> then <i>indicative</i>]</li></ul></li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sī valēs, gaudeo</i></span> "if you are well, I am glad"</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<ul><li>past tense [if <i>perfect indicative</i> then <i>indicative</i>]</li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sī peccāvī, īnsciēns fēcī</i></span> "if I did wrong, I did so unwittingly"</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<ul><li>2nd person generalisations [if <i>present or perfect subjunctive</i> then <i>indicative</i>]</li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceās</i></span> "memory gets weaker, if you don't exercise it"</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<ul><li>future conditions

<ul><li>"future more vivid" [if <i>future or future perfect indicative</i> then <i>future indicative</i>]</li></ul></li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">haec sī attulerīs, cēnābis bene</i></span> "if you bring (literally "will have brought") these things, you will dine well"</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<ul><li>"future less vivid" [if <i>present or perfect subjunctive</i> then <i>present subjunctive</i>]</li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sī negem, mentiar</i></span> "if I were to deny it, I would be lying"</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<ul><li>counterfactual conditions

<ul><li>"present contrary-to-fact" [if <i>imperfect subjunctive</i> then <i>imperfect subjunctive</i>]</li></ul></li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">scrīberem plūra, sī Rōmae essēs</i></span> "I would write more, if you were in Rome"</dd></dl></dd></dl>

<ul><li>"past contrary-to-fact" [if <i>pluperfect subjunctive</i> then <i>pluperfect subjunctive</i>]</li></ul>

<dl><dd><dl><dd><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sī Rōmae fuissem, tē vīdissem</i></span> "if I had been in Rome, I would have seen you"</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French">French</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a>, the conjunction corresponding to "if" is <i>si</i>. The use of tenses is quite similar to English:

</p>

<ul><li>In implicative conditional sentences, the present tense (or other appropriate tense, mood, etc.) is used in both clauses.</li>

<li>In predictive conditional sentences, the future tense or imperative generally appears in the main clause, but the condition clause is formed with the present tense (as in English). This contrasts with subordinate clauses introduced by certain other conjunctions, such as <i>quand</i> ("when"), where French uses the future (while English has the present).</li>

<li>In counterfactual conditional sentences, the <a href="Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a> is used to express the condition (where English similarly uses the past tense). The main clause contains the <a href="Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional mood</a> (e.g. <i>j'arriverais</i>, "I would arrive").</li>

<li>In counterfactual conditional sentences with a past time frame, the condition is expressed using the <a href="Pluperfect" title="Pluperfect">pluperfect</a> e.g. (<i>s'il avait attendu</i>, "if he had waited"), and the consequence with the <a href="Conditional_perfect" title="Conditional perfect">conditional perfect</a> (e.g. <i>je l'aurais vu</i>, "I would have seen him"). Again these verb forms parallel those used in English.</li></ul>

<p>As in English, certain mixtures and variations of these patterns are possible. See also <a href="French_verbs" title="French verbs">French verbs</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian">Italian</h3></div>

<p><a href="Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> uses the following patterns (the equivalent of "if" is <i>se</i>):

</p>

<ul><li>Present tense (or other as appropriate) in both parts of an implicative conditional.</li>

<li>Future tense in both parts of a predictive conditional sentence (the future is not replaced with the present in condition clauses as in English or French).</li>

<li>In a counterfactual conditional, the imperfect <a href="Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">subjunctive</a> is used for the condition, and the <a href="Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional mood</a> for the main clause. A more informal equivalent is to use the imperfect indicative in both parts.</li>

<li>In a counterfactual conditional with past time frame, the pluperfect subjunctive is used for the condition, and the past conditional (conditional perfect) for the main clause.</li></ul>

<p>See also <a href="Italian_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian verbs">Italian verbs</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavic_languages">Slavic languages</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a>, such as <a href="Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, clauses in conditional sentences generally appear in their natural tense (future tense for future reference, etc.) However, for counterfactuals, a conditional/subjunctive marker such as the Russian бы (<i>by</i>) generally appears in both condition and consequent clauses, and this normally accompanies the past tense form of the verb.

</p><p>See <a href="Russian_grammar" title="Russian grammar">Russian grammar</a>, <a href="Bulgarian_grammar" title="Bulgarian grammar">Bulgarian grammar</a>, etc. for more detail.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Logic">Logic</h2></div>

<p>While the <a href="Material_conditional" title="Material conditional">material conditional</a> operator used in <a href="Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">classical logic</a> is sometimes read aloud in the form of a conditional sentence, the intuitive interpretation of conditional statements in natural language does not always correspond to it. Thus, <a href="Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">philosophical logicians</a> and <a href="Formal_semantics_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal semantics (linguistics)">formal semanticists</a> have developed a wide variety of conditional logics that better match actual conditional language and conditional reasoning. They include the <a href="Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">strict conditional</a> and the <a href="Variably_strict_conditional" class="mw-redirect" title="Variably strict conditional">variably strict conditional</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Counterfactuals_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Counterfactuals-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-conditionallogic_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-conditionallogic-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-alonidekkerConditionals_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alonidekkerConditionals-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Anankastic_conditional" title="Anankastic conditional">Anankastic conditional</a></li>

<li><a href="Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">Conditional mood</a></li>

<li><a href="Modality_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Modality (natural language)">Modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This use of past tense is often called <i>fake past</i> since it does not contribute a normal past tense meaning. See Iatridou (2000), Karawani (2014), Mackay (2015), among others.</span>

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002" class="citation book cs1">Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoff (2002). <i>The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 150. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0521431460</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Prince2019" class="citation journal cs1">von Prince, Kilu (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6.pdf">"Counterfactuality and past"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Linguistics and Philosophy</i>. <b>42</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">577–</span>615. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10988-019-09259-6">10.1007/s10988-019-09259-6</a></span>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:181778834">181778834</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Linguistic_Society_of_America-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Linguistic_Society_of_America_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchulz2017" class="citation conference cs1">Schulz, Katrin (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/SALT/article/view/27.547">"Fake Perfect in X-Marked Conditionals"</a>. <i>Proceedings from Semantics and Linguistic Theory</i>. Semantics and Linguistic Theory. Linguistic Society of America. pp. <span class="nowrap">547–</span>570. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3765%2Fsalt.v27i0.4149">10.3765/salt.v27i0.4149</a></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHuddlestonPullum2002" class="citation book cs1">Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoff (2002). <i>The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">85–</span>86. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0521431460</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Fintel1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">von Fintel, Kai (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/fintel/fintel-1998-subjunctive.pdf">"The Presupposition of Subjunctive Conditionals"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Sauerland, Uli; Percus, Oren (eds.). <i>The Interpretive Tract</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">29–</span>44.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEgréCozic2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Egré, Paul; Cozic, Mikaël (2016). "Conditionals". In <a href="Maria_Aloni" title="Maria Aloni">Aloni, Maria</a>; Dekker, Paul (eds.). <i>Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 515. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-107-02839-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1951" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Alan (1951). "A Note on Subjunctive and Counterfactual Conditionals". <i>Analysis</i>. <b>12</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">35–</span>38. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fanalys%2F12.2.35">10.1093/analys/12.2.35</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFIatridou2000" class="citation journal cs1">Iatridou, Sabine (2000). "The grammatical ingredients of counterfactuality". <i>Linguistic Inquiry</i>. <b>31</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">231–</span>270. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2F002438900554352">10.1162/002438900554352</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57570935">57570935</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmann2005" class="citation journal cs1">Kaufmann, Stefan (2005). "Conditional predictions". <i>Linguistics and Philosophy</i>. <b>28</b> (2). 183-184. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10988-005-3731-9">10.1007/s10988-005-3731-9</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:60598513">60598513</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEgréCozic2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Egré, Paul; Cozic, Mikaël (2016). "Conditionals". In <a href="Maria_Aloni" title="Maria Aloni">Aloni, Maria</a>; Dekker, Paul (eds.). <i>Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 515. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-107-02839-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/fintel/fintel-iatridou-2019-x-slides.pdf">Prolegomena to a theory of X-marking </a> Unpublished lecture slides. </span>

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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">von Fintel, Kai; Iatridou, Sabine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.mit.edu/fintel/ks-x-phlip-slides.pdf">X-marked desires or: What wanting and wishing crosslinguistically can tell us about the ingredients of counterfactuality </a> Unpublished lecture slides. </span>

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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchulz2017" class="citation conference cs1">Schulz, Katrin (2017). <i>Proceedings from Semantics and Linguistic Theory</i>. Semantics and Linguistic Theory. Vol. 27. Linguistic Society of America. pp. <span class="nowrap">547–</span>570. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3765%2Fsalt.v27i0.4149">10.3765/salt.v27i0.4149</a></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Language_Log-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Language_Log_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=1469">"Language Log » If you think about it"</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDancygierSweetser1996" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dancygier, Barbara; Sweetser, Eve (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~sweetser/Dancygier_and_Sweetser.1996.CSDL.pdf">"Conditionals, distancing, and alternative spaces"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Goldberg, Adele (ed.). <i>Conceptual structure, discourse and language</i>. CSLI Publications. pp. <span class="nowrap">83–</span>98.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFVelissaratou1901" class="citation thesis cs1">Velissaratou, Sophia (1901). <i>Conditional questions and which-interrogatives</i> (M.Sc.). Universiteit van Amsterdam, ILLC.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFIsaacsRawlins2008" class="citation journal cs1">Isaacs, James; Rawlins, Kyle (2008). "Conditional questions". <i>Journal of Semantics</i>. <b>25</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">269–</span>319. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjos%2Fffn003">10.1093/jos/ffn003</a>.</cite> </span>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKaufmannSchwager2009" class="citation conference cs1">Kaufmann, Stefan; Schwager, Magdalena (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/SALT/article/viewFile/2545/2293"><i>A unified analysis of conditional imperatives</i></a>. Semantics and Linguistic Theory. Linguistic Society of America. pp. Proceedings of SALT.</cite> </span>

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<li id="cite_note-Counterfactuals-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Counterfactuals_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStarr2019" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Starr, Will (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2019/entries/counterfactuals">"Counterfactuals"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-conditionallogic-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-conditionallogic_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEgréRott2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Egré, Paul; Rott, Hans (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-conditionals/">"The Logic of Conditionals"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-alonidekkerConditionals-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-alonidekkerConditionals_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFEgréCozic2016" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Egré, Paul; Cozic, Mikaël (2016). "Conditionals". In <a href="Maria_Aloni" title="Maria Aloni">Aloni, Maria</a>; Dekker, Paul (eds.). <i>Cambridge Handbook of Formal Semantics</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 515. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-107-02839-5</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170822092418/http://www.slu.edu/colleges/AS/languages/classical/latin/tchmat/grammar/whprax/w33con.html">Latin Conditionals</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://testbook.com/learn/english-grammar-conditional-sentences/">Conditional Sentences in English Grammar</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)78" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics (natural language)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Principle_of_compositionality" title="Principle of compositionality">Compositionality</a></li>

<li><a href="Denotation" title="Denotation">Denotation</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistic_entailment" title="Linguistic entailment">Entailment</a></li>

<li><a href="Extension_(semantics)" title="Extension (semantics)">Extension</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Generalized quantifier</a></li>

<li><a href="Intension" title="Intension">Intension</a></li>

<li><a href="Logical_form_(linguistics)" title="Logical form (linguistics)">Logical form</a></li>

<li><a href="Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presupposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li>

<li><a href="Reference" title="Reference">Reference</a></li>

<li><a href="Scope_(formal_semantics)" title="Scope (formal semantics)">Scope</a></li>

<li><a href="Speech_act" title="Speech act">Speech act</a></li>

<li><a href="Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li>

<li><a href="Truth-conditional_semantics" title="Truth-conditional semantics">Truth conditions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anaphora_(linguistics)" title="Anaphora (linguistics)">Anaphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li>

<li><a href="Binding_(linguistics)" title="Binding (linguistics)">Binding</a></li>

<li><a href="Definiteness" title="Definiteness">Definiteness</a></li>

<li><a href="Disjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Disjunction">Disjunction</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidentiality" title="Evidentiality">Evidentiality</a></li>

<li><a href="Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">Focus</a></li>

<li><a href="Indexicality" title="Indexicality">Indexicality</a></li>

<li><a href="Lexical_semantics" title="Lexical semantics">Lexical semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Modality_(semantics)" title="Modality (semantics)">Modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Negation" title="Negation">Negation</a></li>

<li><a href="Propositional_attitudes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional attitudes">Propositional attitudes</a></li>

<li><a href="Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">Quantification</a></li>

<li><a href="Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Antecedent-contained_deletion" title="Antecedent-contained deletion">Antecedent-contained deletion</a></li>

<li><a href="Cataphora" title="Cataphora">Cataphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Coercion_(linguistics)" title="Coercion (linguistics)">Coercion</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservativity" title="Conservativity">Conservativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Counterfactuals" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfactuals">Counterfactuals</a></li>

<li><a href="Crossover_effects" title="Crossover effects">Crossover effects</a></li>

<li><a href="Cumulativity_(linguistics)" title="Cumulativity (linguistics)">Cumulativity</a></li>

<li><a href="De_dicto_and_de_re" title="De dicto and de re">De dicto and de re</a></li>

<li><a href="Deontic_modality" title="Deontic modality">Deontic modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_relation" title="Discourse relation">Discourse relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Donkey_anaphora" class="mw-redirect" title="Donkey anaphora">Donkey anaphora</a></li>

<li><a href="Epistemic_modality" title="Epistemic modality">Epistemic modality</a></li>

<li><a href="Exhaustivity" title="Exhaustivity">Exhaustivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Faultless_disagreement" title="Faultless disagreement">Faultless disagreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Free_choice_inference" title="Free choice inference">Free choice inferences</a></li>

<li><a href="Givenness" title="Givenness">Givenness</a></li>

<li><a href="Homogeneity_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homogeneity (linguistics)">Homogeneity (linguistics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Hurford_disjunction" title="Hurford disjunction">Hurford disjunction</a></li>

<li><a href="Inalienable_possession" title="Inalienable possession">Inalienable possession</a></li>

<li><a href="Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective modification</a></li>

<li><a href="Logophoricity" title="Logophoricity">Logophoricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Mirativity" title="Mirativity">Mirativity</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_subordination" title="Modal subordination">Modal subordination</a></li>

<li><a href="Opaque_context" title="Opaque context">Opaque contexts</a></li>

<li><a href="Performative_utterance" title="Performative utterance">Performatives</a></li>

<li><a href="Polarity_item" title="Polarity item">Polarity items</a></li>

<li><a href="Privative_adjective" title="Privative adjective">Privative adjectives</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantificational_variability_effect" title="Quantificational variability effect">Quantificational variability effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Responsive_predicate" title="Responsive predicate">Responsive predicate</a></li>

<li><a href="Rising_declarative" title="Rising declarative">Rising declaratives</a></li>

<li><a href="Scalar_implicature" title="Scalar implicature">Scalar implicature</a></li>

<li><a href="Sloppy_identity" title="Sloppy identity">Sloppy identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Subsective_modifier" title="Subsective modifier">Subsective modification</a></li>

<li><a href="Subtrigging" title="Subtrigging">Subtrigging</a></li>

<li><a href="Telicity" title="Telicity">Telicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Temperature_paradox" title="Temperature paradox">Temperature paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Veridicality" title="Veridicality">Veridicality</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formal systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alternative_semantics" title="Alternative semantics">Alternative semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Categorial_grammar" title="Categorial grammar">Categorial grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Combinatory_categorial_grammar" title="Combinatory categorial grammar">Combinatory categorial grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Discourse_representation_theory" title="Discourse representation theory">Discourse representation theory (DRT)</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_semantics" title="Dynamic semantics">Dynamic semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">Generative grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Glue_semantics" title="Glue semantics">Glue semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Inquisitive_semantics" title="Inquisitive semantics">Inquisitive semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensional_logic" title="Intensional logic">Intensional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Lambda_calculus" title="Lambda calculus">Lambda calculus</a></li>

<li><a href="Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li>

<li><a href="Montague_grammar" title="Montague grammar">Montague grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Segmented_discourse_representation_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmented discourse representation theory">Segmented discourse representation theory (SDRT)</a></li>

<li><a href="Situation_semantics" title="Situation semantics">Situation semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Supervaluationism" title="Supervaluationism">Supervaluationism</a></li>

<li><a href="Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Autonomy_of_syntax" title="Autonomy of syntax">Autonomy of syntax</a></li>

<li><a href="Context_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Context set">Context set</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuation" title="Continuation">Continuation</a></li>

<li><a href="Conversational_scoreboard" title="Conversational scoreboard">Conversational scoreboard</a></li>

<li><a href="Downward_entailing" title="Downward entailing">Downward entailing</a></li>

<li><a href="Existential_closure" title="Existential closure">Existential closure</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_application" title="Function application">Function application</a></li>

<li><a href="Meaning_postulate" title="Meaning postulate">Meaning postulate</a></li>

<li><a href="Monad_(functional_programming)" title="Monad (functional programming)">Monads</a></li>

<li><a href="Plural_quantification" title="Plural quantification">Plural quantification</a></li>

<li><a href="Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantifier_raising" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantifier raising">Quantifier raising</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantization_(linguistics)" title="Quantization (linguistics)">Quantization</a></li>

<li><a href="Question_under_discussion" title="Question under discussion">Question under discussion</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li>

<li><a href="Squiggle_operator" title="Squiggle operator">Squiggle operator</a></li>

<li><a href="Strawson_entailment" title="Strawson entailment">Strawson entailment</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_conditional" title="Strict conditional">Strict conditional</a></li>

<li><a href="Type_shifter" title="Type shifter">Type shifter</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_grinder" title="Universal grinder">Universal grinder</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cognitive_semantics" title="Cognitive semantics">Cognitive semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_semantics" title="Computational semantics">Computational semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a></li>

<li><a href="Formal_grammar" title="Formal grammar">Formal grammar</a></li>

<li><a href="Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">Inferentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Logic_translation" title="Logic translation">Logic translation</a></li>

<li><a href="Linguistics_wars" title="Linguistics wars">Linguistics wars</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li>

<li><a href="Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">Semantics of logic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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